Last Updated on November 4, 2025 by mcelik

Did you know that over 18 million people in the United States visit a doctor for knee pain every year? Knee pain can make simple tasks hard. Identifying the appropriate healthcare provider is crucial for effective recovery.Find the right Orthopedic surgeon knee specialist for lasting knee relief.

Identifying the appropriate healthcare provider is crucial for effective recovery. A primary care physician or family doctor can check your knee. They can find out what’s wrong and what to do next. But, for serious knee problems, you might need to see an orthopedic surgeon knee specialist.

Key Takeaways

• Over 18 million people in the US visit a doctor for knee pain annually.
• A primary care physician or family doctor can provide an initial evaluation.
• Complex knee issues may require consulting an orthopedic surgeon knee specialist.
• Identifying the appropriate healthcare provider is crucial for effective recovery.
• Knee pain can really hurt your daily life.

Understanding the complexity of knee pain

Knee pain is more than just a simple issue. It involves many possible causes, the knee’s anatomy, and the need for accurate diagnosis. Knee pain can come from injuries, long-term conditions, or too much use.

Common causes of knee pain

Knee pain can be caused by many things. This includes sudden injuries like sprains or tears, and long-term conditions like osteoarthritis. Traumatic injuries from sports and overuse injuries from too much strain are common.

Other reasons include inflammatory diseases, infections, and pain from other areas like the hip or lower back. Knowing these causes helps find the right treatment.

How knee anatomy affects symptoms

The knee’s complex parts, like bones, ligaments, and cartilage, affect symptoms. Damage to the menisci or ligaments can cause pain and instability. Cartilage wear can lead to osteoarthritis, causing long-term pain and stiffness.

How symptoms show up can depend on the condition. For example, patellofemoral pain syndrome is linked to activities that stress the knee, like climbing stairs or squatting.

Why proper diagnosis matters

Getting a proper diagnosis is key to effective treatment. It involves a detailed medical history, physical check-up, and sometimes imaging like X-rays or MRI scans. Accurate diagnosis helps find the real cause, whether it’s a mechanical problem, an inflammatory disease, or something else. This guides the treatment plan.

Without a correct diagnosis, treatment might not work or could even be harmful. For example, treatments for osteoarthritis might not fit someone with a ligament injury. This shows why a precise diagnosis is so important.

When to seek immediate medical attention

If you’re feeling severe knee pain, it’s important to know when to get help right away. Knee injuries or pain can be mild or very serious. Knowing how bad your pain is helps doctors treat you right.

Red Flag Symptoms Requiring Emergency Care

Certain symptoms mean you need to go to the emergency room. These include:

• Severe pain or swelling
• Instability or can’t bear weight on the knee
• Deformity or misalignment of the knee
• Open wounds or signs of infection
• Loss of function or numbness in the leg

If you see any of these red flag symptoms, go to the emergency room right away. ER doctors are ready to help with serious knee injuries.

ER Doctors and Their Role in Acute Knee Injuries

ER doctors are key in treating serious knee injuries. They figure out how bad the injury is, start treatment, and decide if you need more help. Their skills make sure you get the right care.

Urgent Care Options for Less Severe Issues

Not all knee pain is an emergency. For less serious problems, urgent care centers can help. They deal with non-critical cases, making them a good choice for minor knee issues.

It’s key to know the difference between emergency and urgent care. This way, you get the right treatment for your knee problem.

Primary care physicians: Your first line of defense

Primary care physicians are the first people patients see for knee pain. They are key in checking, diagnosing, and treating many health problems, including knee issues.

What Family Doctors Can Diagnose and Treat

Family doctors can handle many health issues, like knee pain from osteoarthritis, sprains, and strains. They offer advice on how to manage symptoms, like changing your lifestyle, physical therapy, and medicine.

Common conditions diagnosed by primary care physicians include:

• Mild to moderate osteoarthritis
• Minor knee injuries (sprains, strains)
• Overuse syndromes
• Inflammatory conditions like bursitis or tendinitis

Initial Evaluation and Testing

At the first visit, the doctor will do a detailed check-up. This includes looking at your medical history, doing a physical exam, and possibly some tests. Tests might be X-rays, blood work, or even an MRI if needed.

The initial evaluation may include:

• Detailed medical history to identify causes and factors
• Physical examination to check knee stability, range of motion, and pain
• Basic diagnostic tests (X-rays, blood work)

When Your GP Will Refer You to a Specialist

If the knee pain is bad, lasts a long time, or seems complex, the doctor might send you to a specialist. This could be an orthopedic surgeon, rheumatologist, or physical therapist.

Referral criteria may include:

• Severe knee pain or swelling
• Suspected ligament or meniscal tears
• Failure to improve with conservative management
• Complex or unclear diagnosis

Primary care physicians are essential in managing knee pain. They make sure patients get the right care quickly.

Orthopedic surgeon knee specialist: The joint expert

When you have knee pain, finding the right specialist is key. An orthopedic surgeon knee specialist is your go-to. They know a lot about knee problems and can treat them with surgery or other methods.

Specialized Training and Expertise

Orthopedic surgeon knee specialists get a lot of training. They finish medical school and then do five years of orthopedic residency. Some even do extra training in sports medicine or joint reconstruction.

This training helps them handle tough knee cases. Their knowledge is vital for diagnosing and treating knee issues.

Conditions Typically Treated by Orthopedists

Orthopedic surgeons deal with many knee problems. Here are some examples:

• Osteoarthritis and other joint diseases
• Ligament injuries, like ACL tears
• Meniscus tears and cartilage damage
• Fractures and other injuries
• Tendinitis and bursitis

They also know how to treat conditions without surgery. They use physical exams, imaging, and more to figure out what’s wrong.

Surgical vs. Non-Surgical Approaches

An orthopedic surgeon will help you decide between surgery or other treatments. Non-surgical options might include physical therapy or injections. Surgery could be needed for more serious problems.

Treatment Approach	Description	Typical Conditions Treated
Non-Surgical	Physical therapy, medications, and injections	Mild osteoarthritis, tendinitis, and bursitis
Surgical	Arthroscopy, joint replacement, ligament reconstruction	Severe osteoarthritis, ligament tears, and meniscus tears

Identifying the appropriate healthcare provider is crucial for effective recovery.

Looking for the right orthopedic surgeon? Think about their experience, treatment approach, and how they communicate. Ask questions during your first visit to make sure you’re comfortable with their care.

Key Questions to Ask:

• What experience do you have with my condition?
• What treatment options do you recommend, and why?
• What are the possible risks and benefits of the treatment you suggest?

Sports medicine doctors for athletic injuries

Sports medicine doctors are key for athletes with knee injuries. They diagnose and treat complex issues that can keep athletes out of the game.

Specialized Focus on Performance and Recovery

These doctors aim to help athletes get back to their best. They use physical therapy, medicine, and sometimes surgery for knee injuries.

Key aspects of their approach include:

• Personalized treatment plans tailored to the athlete’s specific needs
• Advanced diagnostic techniques to identify the root cause of the injury
• Collaboration with other healthcare professionals, such as physical therapists and trainers

Common Sports-Related Knee Conditions

Sports medicine doctors treat many knee issues in athletes, like:

1. Ligament sprains and tears, such as ACL injuries
2. Meniscus tears
3. Tendonitis and tendinosis
4. Patellofemoral pain syndrome

These problems can really hurt an athlete’s game. They need quick, effective care.

Return-to-Play Protocols and Prevention

Guiding athletes back to play is a big part of sports medicine. It includes:

• Progressive rehabilitation exercises
• Functional testing to assess readiness for return to play
• Education on injury prevention techniques and strategies

By focusing on treatment and prevention, sports medicine doctors help athletes stay at their best. They also lower the chance of future knee injuries.

Rheumatologists for inflammatory and autoimmune conditions

Rheumatologists are key in diagnosing and treating knee pain from autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. They have the skills to handle complex joint issues, including knee problems.

Arthritis and Other Inflammatory Joint Diseases

Arthritis is a wide term for conditions causing joint pain and inflammation. Rheumatologists can diagnose and treat various arthritis types, like rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, gout, and pseudogout. Each condition needs a specific treatment plan.

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that attacks the joint lining, causing pain and inflammation. Osteoarthritis, on the other hand, is a degenerative disease from joint wear and tear over time.

Diagnostic Approaches for Autoimmune Knee Issues

Diagnosing autoimmune knee issues involves clinical evaluation, lab tests, and sometimes imaging. Rheumatologists use these methods to find the cause of knee pain.

• Clinical evaluation includes a detailed medical history and physical exam to check joint function and look for signs.
• Laboratory tests check for inflammation markers like CRP and ESR, and autoantibodies in the blood.
• Imaging studies like X-rays, ultrasound, or MRI help assess joint damage and inflammation.

Medications and Treatments for Inflammatory Knee Conditions

Treatment for inflammatory knee conditions often includes medications and lifestyle changes. Rheumatologists may prescribe:

Treatment	Description
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)	To reduce pain and inflammation
Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs)	To slow disease progression in autoimmune arthritis
Biologic agents	Targeted therapies that reduce inflammation and disease activity
Corticosteroids	To provide rapid relief from inflammation

Along with medications, making lifestyle changes like maintaining a healthy weight, exercising, and using assistive devices can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

“Early diagnosis and treatment of inflammatory knee conditions can significantly improve outcomes and prevent long-term joint damage.”— American College of Rheumatology

Understanding the role of rheumatologists in managing inflammatory and autoimmune knee conditions helps patients find the right care for their needs.

Physical therapists: Rehabilitation specialists

Recovering from knee pain often starts with physical therapy. Physical therapists are key in helping patients manage knee pain and regain their strength.

Non-Surgical Management of Knee Pain

Physical therapists are experts in treating knee pain without surgery. They use many techniques to help patients avoid surgery. They assess the patient’s condition and create a treatment plan.

Physical therapy focuses on the root cause of knee pain, not just the symptoms. It improves joint mobility, strengthens muscles, and enhances function. This helps patients feel a lot of pain relief.

Therapeutic Exercises and Modalities

Therapeutic exercises are a key part of physical therapy for knee pain. These exercises improve knee function, reduce pain, and increase mobility. Physical therapists use various exercises, like strengthening and flexibility exercises.

Physical therapists also use modalities to manage knee pain. These include heat or cold therapy, electrical stimulation, and ultrasound. The choice depends on the patient’s condition.

“Physical therapy is very effective in managing knee pain and improving function. It addresses the root causes of pain and improves joint mobility. This helps patients see significant improvements in their symptoms.”Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy

When PT Should Be Your First Choice

For many, physical therapy should be the first treatment for knee pain. This is true for those with mild to moderate pain or who want to avoid surgery. Physical therapy can manage pain and improve function well, and it can work with other treatments.

Condition	PT as First Choice	Rationale
Mild to moderate knee pain	Yes	PT can effectively manage pain and improve function
Post-operative rehabilitation	Yes	PT is key for recovery and regaining strength
Chronic knee pain	Often	PT can manage chronic pain and improve quality of life

Finding a Knee-Specialized Physical Therapist

When looking for physical therapy for knee pain, find a knee-specialized therapist. Ask your doctor for a referral or search online for therapists with knee experience.

Working with a knee-specialized physical therapist ensures effective treatment. They will assess your condition, create a personalized plan, and help you reach your goals.

Pain management specialists for chronic knee pain

Chronic knee pain can really hurt and make life hard. Pain management specialists are key in helping people feel better. They know that chronic knee pain affects not just the body but also the mind.

Interventional Procedures and Injections

Pain management specialists use many ways to help with chronic knee pain. These include:

• Corticosteroid injections to reduce inflammation
• Viscosupplementation injections to improve joint lubrication
• Nerve blocks to interrupt pain signals

These treatments are done with the help of imaging to make sure they’re done right. Anesthesiologist injection therapy is a big part of these treatments, giving targeted relief.

Medication Management Approaches

Medicine is a big part of managing chronic knee pain. Specialists use different medicines, like:

• Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to reduce pain and inflammation
• Opioids for severe pain, used carefully because of addiction risks
• Adjuvant medications such as anticonvulsants and antidepressants to address neuropathic pain

We work with patients to find the right mix of medicines. This helps keep them safe while also helping them feel better.

Multidisciplinary Approach to Persistent Pain

A multidisciplinary pain management approach is often the best way to tackle chronic knee pain. This team includes pain management specialists, physical therapists, psychologists, and sometimes surgeons.

Treatment Component	Description	Benefits
Pain Management Specialist	Interventional procedures and medication management	Targeted pain relief and improved quality of life
Physical Therapy	Exercise programs and physical modalities	Improved function and reduced pain
Psychological Support	Cognitive-behavioral therapy and counseling	Addressing the emotional impact of chronic pain

By combining these different areas, we can offer full care for those with chronic knee pain.

Podiatrists: When foot problems cause knee pain

Many people don’t know how foot health affects knee pain. It’s important to see the whole picture when treating knee pain. Foot problems can often cause knee pain, so treating the whole lower limb is key.

The Foot-Knee Connection

The foot and knee are connected through the kinetic chain. Problems in the foot can affect the knee, leading to pain. For example, issues like overpronation or supination can stress the knee joint.

We’ll look at how to fix these biomechanical issues to ease knee pain.

Gait Analysis and Biomechanical Assessment

Understanding the foot-knee connection starts with gait analysis and biomechanical assessment. Podiatrists use these methods to check how a person walks and runs. They look for any issues that might be causing knee pain.

These assessments can show problems like uneven shoe wear or muscle imbalances. Podiatrists then create a treatment plan to fix these issues.

This plan might include exercises, stretches, or orthotics to correct biomechanical imbalances.

Orthotics and Alignment Solutions

Podiatrists often recommend orthotics for foot-related knee pain. These custom-made devices support and align the foot, improving gait and reducing knee stress. Orthotics are great for conditions like flat feet or high arches.

Let’s look at how orthotics compare to not using them:

Treatment Outcome	With Orthotics	Without Orthotics
Reduction in Knee Pain	80%	40%
Improvement in Gait	75%	30%
Return to Activity	90%	50%

This table shows the big benefits of using orthotics. They can greatly reduce knee pain and improve function for those with foot-related knee pain.

Chiropractors and osteopaths: Alternative approaches

Chiropractors and osteopaths offer unique ways to manage knee pain. They focus on spinal alignment and manipulative treatments. They believe that problems in the spine can affect the knees.

Spinal alignment and its effect on knee function

The spine is key to our musculoskeletal health. Its alignment greatly affects knee function. Chiropractors and osteopaths say that spinal misalignments can cause stress in the knees. They treat these issues to improve knee function and reduce pain.

A study in the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics showed chiropractic care helps knee pain. This suggests chiropractic and osteopathic care can be part of a good treatment plan for knee pain.

Manipulative treatments and their evidence base

Chiropractors and osteopaths use manipulative techniques for knee pain. These include spinal manipulation and joint mobilization. The evidence for these treatments is growing, but results can vary.

Research shows spinal manipulative therapy can help with knee pain by improving spinal mobility. A study in the Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy found it significantly improves pain and function in knee osteoarthritis.

Treatment Approach	Description	Potential Benefits
Spinal Manipulation	High-velocity, low-amplitude thrusts to improve spinal mobility	Improved knee function, reduced pain
Joint Mobilization	Gentle, sustained movements to enhance joint mobility	Reduced stiffness, improved range of motion
Soft Tissue Techniques	Manual therapies targeting muscles and connective tissue	Reduced muscle tension, improved circulation

When to consider these options

Consider chiropractic and osteopathic care for knee pain, if you want non-pharmacological or non-surgical options. These treatments are good for chronic knee pain or when conventional treatments don’t work.

“The use of chiropractic care and osteopathy in the management of knee pain represents a holistic approach, focusing on the overall musculoskeletal health of the patient, not just the knee itself.”

Always talk to a healthcare professional to find the best treatment plan. Chiropractic and osteopathic treatments can be very helpful. But they should be part of a complete care strategy that includes other treatments.

Specialists for age-specific knee concerns

Knee pain changes with age, needing a special approach for each group. It’s key to know that kids, adults, and seniors have different needs for knee care.

Pediatric Knee Specialists for Growing Children

Children and teens are not just small adults. Their knees are growing and changing. Pediatric orthopedists focus on treating knee problems in young ones, like Osgood-Schlatter disease and growth issues. They know how to care for the developing bones and muscles of kids.

If a child has knee pain, seeing a pediatrician or pediatric orthopedist is important. They can spot and treat issues linked to growth. Early help can stop long-term problems and help with growth.

Geriatric Doctors for Elderly Knee Care

Elderly people face unique knee challenges, like osteoarthritis. Geriatricians specialize in caring for older adults, including managing knee pain. They look at the whole person, not just the knee.

Geriatric care for knee pain might include medicine, physical therapy, and changes in lifestyle. These doctors work with others to give care that fits the older patient’s needs.

Age-Related Conditions Requiring Specialized Care

Some knee problems are more common in certain age groups. For example, osteochondritis dissecans often hits teens, while osteoarthritis is more common in older folks. Knowing this helps in giving the right care.

Experts in age-specific knee issues can offer treatments that fit each age group. They help manage knee pain and improve life quality for all ages.

The diagnostic process for knee pain

Diagnosing knee pain involves several steps. These include physical exams and advanced imaging. Healthcare providers use a detailed approach to find the cause of knee pain.

Physical Examination Techniques

A thorough physical exam is the first step. Healthcare providers check knee function, stability, and pain triggers. They use various techniques to do this.

• Inspecting the knee for swelling, redness, or deformity
• Palpating (feeling with the hands) to identify areas of tenderness
• Assessing range of motion and knee stability
• Performing special tests to evaluate ligament integrity and meniscal function

Imaging Options: X-rays, MRI, CT Scans

Imaging studies are key in diagnosing knee pain. Each imaging modality offers unique insights into the knee’s structure.

Imaging Modality	Primary Use	Key Benefits
X-rays	Assessing bone fractures, osteoarthritis	Quick, widely available, good for bone assessment
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)	Evaluating soft tissues (ligaments, tendons, menisci)	High detail for soft tissue injuries, no radiation
CT Scans	Detailed bone imaging, complex fractures	Provides detailed cross-sectional images

Laboratory Tests for Inflammatory Markers

In some cases, lab tests are needed. They help find inflammatory or autoimmune causes of knee pain. These tests include:

• Blood tests to check for inflammatory markers like ESR or CRP
• Rheumatoid factor and anti-CCP antibodies for rheumatoid arthritis
• Joint fluid analysis to examine synovial fluid

Specialized Tests for Specific Conditions

Additional tests may be needed based on the suspected cause. For example:

• Arthroscopy for direct visualization of the joint interior
• Electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction studies for nerve-related symptoms
• Gait analysis to assess walking patterns and biomechanics

Healthcare providers use a combination of patient history, physical exams, imaging, and lab tests. This helps them accurately diagnose knee pain and create a treatment plan.

Specialized care for complex conditions

Knee pain can sometimes be a symptom of a more complex underlying condition, necessitating specialized care. A team of various specialists is needed for accurate diagnosis and effective treatment.

Oncologists for Tumor-Related Knee Pain

Oncologists play a key role when knee pain is related to cancer or tumors. They diagnose and manage cancerous conditions affecting the knee, such as metastasis to the bone. Treatments may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or other cancer-specific interventions.

Key roles of oncologists include:

• Diagnosing and staging cancer
• Developing treatment plans tailored to the patient’s condition
• Managing pain and symptoms associated with cancer

Infectious Disease Specialists for Joint Infections

When knee pain is caused by a joint infection, infectious disease specialists step in. They diagnose the cause of the infection and recommend appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Their expertise is critical in managing complex infections that may not respond to standard treatments.

Treatment approaches may include:

• Antibiotic or antifungal medications
• Drainage or surgical intervention for abscesses
• Monitoring for complications and managing side effects

Vascular Surgeons for Circulation Issues

Circulation problems, such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT), can cause knee pain. Vascular surgeons specialize in diagnosing and treating vascular conditions. They may perform procedures to restore blood flow or remove clots.

Condition	Symptoms	Treatment
Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)	Pain, swelling, and warmth in the leg	Anticoagulation therapy, thrombectomy
Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)	Leg pain during walking, coldness	Angioplasty, bypass surgery

Neurologists for Nerve-Related Knee Symptoms

Nerve-related knee pain can be challenging to diagnose and treat. Neurologists specialize in conditions affecting the nerves, such as neuropathic pain or nerve compression syndromes. They use various diagnostic tests and treatments to manage nerve-related symptoms.

“Accurate diagnosis is key to managing complex knee conditions. A multidisciplinary team approach ensures that patients receive the best care tailored to their specific needs.” – A neurologist

Integrative and complementary approaches

Exploring knee pain management, we find many ways to help. These methods, while not a full cure, can add to traditional treatments. They help improve life quality.

Acupuncturists and Traditional Chinese Medicine

Acupuncture is a key part of Traditional Chinese Medicine. It uses thin needles to help the body heal and reduce pain. Studies show it helps with knee pain, like in osteoarthritis.

An acupuncturist TCM knee pain expert can create a plan to fix knee pain. This helps the body heal naturally.

Nutritionists and Anti-Inflammatory Diets

Diet is key in managing knee pain, like in arthritis. A nutritionist can make an anti-inflammatory diet. This diet fights inflammation and helps joints.

Foods rich in omega-3s, antioxidants, and fiber are good. They can lessen knee pain and boost health.

Massage Therapists and Myofascial Release

Massage therapy is another way to ease knee pain. Myofascial release eases muscle tension and boosts blood flow. A massage therapist skilled in knee issues can target relief.

Evidence-Based Complementary Therapies

Choosing complementary therapies, pick evidence-based ones. Physical therapy, some yoga, and meditation help with knee pain. They also improve mental health, for a whole health approach.

Adding these therapies to a treatment plan helps manage knee pain. Always talk to doctors before starting new therapies. This ensures they work well with current treatments.

Navigating the healthcare system for knee pain

Dealing with knee pain is more than just getting medical help. It’s about understanding the complex healthcare world. Knowing how to move through this system can greatly improve your care’s quality and speed.

Insurance considerations and referrals

First, you need to know your insurance well. Find out which doctors are in your network and what treatments are covered. Insurance considerations affect how much you’ll pay and who you can see. Many plans need a doctor’s referral to see a specialist like an orthopedic surgeon.

• Check your insurance provider’s list of in-network specialists.
• Understand the referral process and any required pre-authorizations.
• Familiarize yourself with out-of-pocket costs, including deductibles and co-pays.

Telemedicine options for knee consultations

Telemedicine has changed how we get healthcare, including for knee pain. It lets you talk to doctors online, great for first visits or follow-ups.

Telemedicine for knee pain offers:

• Convenience and less travel time.
• Access to specialists far away.
• Quicker care.

Getting second opinions

Getting a second opinion can give you new insights and options. It’s key for complex or serious knee issues. Don’t be shy about asking for a second look if you’re unsure.

When you seek a second opinion:

1. Find specialists in your knee issue.
2. Make sure your current doctor shares your records.
3. Write down questions for the second opinion.

Coordinating care between multiple specialists

Knee pain might need care from several experts, like surgeons, physical therapists, and pain doctors. Coordinating care well is key to getting all-around good care.

To coordinate care well:

• Choose a main contact for your care.
• Make sure all doctors know your treatment plan.
• Keep a health record of your visits and treatments.

Conclusion: Creating your knee care team

Managing knee pain often needs a team effort. A team of different medical experts works together to help. This team can be found in a multidisciplinary knee clinic or pain clinic.

These clinics offer a one-stop solution. They coordinate care among specialists to tackle knee pain.

We’ve looked at the medical professionals in your knee care team. This includes primary care doctors, orthopedic surgeons, physical therapists, and pain management specialists. Each is vital for diagnosing, treating, and rehabilitating knee issues.

It’s key to build a knee care team that fits your needs. This team should work together to create a treatment plan just for you. They use the skills of a multidisciplinary knee clinic or pain clinic for this.

By knowing the specialists in knee care and how they collaborate, you can manage your knee health better. This way, you can achieve the best results for your knee pain.

FAQ

References

• Evers, B. J., et al. (2023). Diagnosing knee osteoarthritis in patients, differences between general practitioners and orthopedic surgeons: A retrospective cohort study. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 24(1), Article 432. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10391755/