Cardiac Catheterization: Safe Surgery Info

Did you know over 1 million cardiac catheterization procedures happen every year in the U.S.? This shows how vital it is to know what a heart cath is. It plays a key role in finding and treating heart problems.cardiac catheterizationCardiac Catheterization Angioplasty Difference

We’re here to explain coronary angiography and if it’s surgery. A heart cath is a procedure to check and fix heart issues. It uses a thin tube, called a catheter, inserted through an artery in the leg or arm. The tube then goes to the heart.

Key Takeaways

• Cardiac catheterization is a minimally invasive procedure used to diagnose and treat heart conditions.
• The procedure involves inserting a catheter into an artery and guiding it to the heart.
• Coronary angiography is a type of cardiac catheterization that helps visualize the coronary arteries.
• While it’s a significant medical procedure, cardiac catheterization is not considered traditional surgery.
• Understanding the risks and benefits is key for patients going through this procedure.

What Is Cardiac Catheterization?

Cardiac catheterization has changed cardiology a lot. It’s a way to look at and fix heart problems without big surgery. A thin, flexible tube called a catheter is put into an artery in the leg or arm. It then goes to the heart.

Definition and Basic Procedure

Cardiac catheterization, or heart cath, lets doctors see the heart’s parts. They use a catheter through a small skin cut and X-ray images to guide it. The catheter can put dye in arteries, check blood pressure, or take blood samples.

Getting ready for the procedure includes numbing the area and maybe some sedation. The steps are preparing, inserting the catheter, and taking care of the patient after.

History and Development

The first catheterization was on animals in the 1920s. Werner Forssman did the first on a human in 1929. He tested the idea by putting a catheter in his own heart.

Over time, it’s become more than just looking at the heart. Now, it can also fix problems like blockages with angioplasty and stenting.

Purpose and Diagnostic Value

Cardiac catheterization is key for diagnosing and treating heart issues. It shows the heart’s structure and how it works. This helps doctors find blockages, check valves, and measure blood flow.

It’s great for getting detailed images of the heart and arteries. This helps doctors plan the best treatment.

Some main uses are:

• Diagnosing coronary artery disease
• Evaluating heart valve function
• Measuring blood pressure within the heart
• Assessing the need for interventions such as angioplasty or stenting

Diagnostic Application	Description	Clinical Benefit
Coronary Artery Disease Diagnosis	Injecting dye into coronary arteries to visualize blockages	Accurate assessment of artery disease severity
Heart Valve Evaluation	Measuring pressure gradients across heart valves	Determining the need for valve repair or replacement
Blood Pressure Measurement	Recording pressure within heart chambers	Assessing heart function and possible problems

Knowing about cardiac catheterization helps patients understand its importance in cardiology. As technology gets better, it will keep being a key tool for heart disease diagnosis and treatment.

Heart Cath vs. Traditional Surgery: Key Differences

Cardiac catheterization is a less invasive way to diagnose and treat heart problems. It’s different from open-heart surgery. This makes it a better choice for some heart issues.

Invasiveness Comparison

Cardiac catheterization is less invasive than traditional surgery. It involves a small puncture in a blood vessel, usually in the groin or arm. A catheter is then guided to the heart.

Traditional surgery, on the other hand, needs a bigger incision in the chest. This allows direct access to the heart.

Key differences in invasiveness:

• Smaller incision or puncture site
• Less tissue damage
• Reduced risk of infection

Anesthesia Requirements

Anesthesia needs differ between cardiac catheterization and traditional surgery. Traditional surgery often requires general anesthesia. Cardiac catheterization, though, uses local anesthesia, sometimes with sedation.

Procedure	Anesthesia Type
Cardiac Catheterization	Local anesthesia ± conscious sedation
Traditional Surgery	General anesthesia

Recovery Time Differences

Recovery times also vary between the two procedures. Cardiac catheterization has shorter recovery times. This is because it’s less invasive.

Typical recovery times:

• Cardiac Catheterization: A few hours to a day
• Traditional Surgery: Several days to weeks

Procedural Environment

The place where these procedures happen is different too. Cardiac catheterization takes place in a cath lab. This lab has special imaging technology. Traditional surgery, by contrast, happens in an operating room.

Knowing these differences helps patients and doctors choose the best treatment for heart conditions.

Is a Cardiac Catheterization Technically Surgery?

Cardiac catheterization is a procedure to diagnose and treat heart issues. It raises a question: is it surgery? We need to look into its medical classification and compare it to traditional surgery.

Medical Classification

Cardiac catheterization is seen as a minimally invasive procedure. It involves a small puncture in a blood vessel, usually in the groin or arm. A catheter is then inserted, guided by imaging technology.

This procedure is different from traditional surgery. It doesn’t require a big incision or disrupt much tissue. This makes many doctors not consider it traditional surgery.

Minimally Invasive Procedure vs. Surgery

The main difference between cardiac catheterization and traditional surgery is invasiveness and recovery time. Minimally invasive procedures cause less damage, less pain, and faster recovery.

Cardiac catheterization happens in a catheterization laboratory, or cath lab. This lab has special imaging tools. It helps guide the catheter to the heart safely.

How Medical Professionals Categorize Heart Caths

Doctors classify cardiac catheterization based on its purpose and methods. It can be for diagnostic purposes or therapeutic interventions like angioplasty and stenting.

They also look at the approach: left heart catheterization or right heart catheterization. Each type is used for different reasons and gives unique insights into heart health.

Understanding how cardiac catheterization is classified and performed helps us see its importance in cardiology. It may seem like surgery, but its minimally invasive nature and context make it unique.

Types of Cardiac Catheterization Procedures

Cardiac catheterization procedures are divided into several types. They focus on different parts of the heart and have various purposes. These methods have changed how we diagnose and treat heart diseases. They offer less invasive options compared to traditional surgery.

Diagnostic Catheterization

Diagnostic catheterization helps find heart problems. A catheter is inserted into a leg or arm artery or vein. Then, contrast dye is used to see the heart and blood vessels with X-rays.

Interventional Catheterization

Interventional catheterization treats heart conditions. It’s used to open blocked arteries. Techniques include using balloons to widen arteries and placing stents to keep them open.

Right Heart Catheterization

Right heart catheterization accesses the right side of the heart. It’s done through a vein. It measures pressures in the right heart and pulmonary arteries. This helps diagnose and manage conditions like pulmonary hypertension.

Left Heart Catheterization

Left heart catheterization accesses the left side of the heart. It’s done through an artery. It helps see the coronary arteries and check the left ventricle’s function. This is key for diagnosing coronary artery disease and checking the heart’s pumping ability.

Type of Catheterization	Purpose	Access	Common Applications
Diagnostic	Diagnosis	Artery or Vein	Visualizing heart structure, coronary arteries
Interventional	Treatment	Artery	Angioplasty, stenting, treating blocked arteries
Right Heart	Diagnosis, Monitoring	Vein	Measuring right heart pressures, pulmonary hypertension
Left Heart	Diagnosis, Assessment	Artery	Coronary artery disease diagnosis, left ventricle function assessment

We’ve looked at the main types of cardiac catheterization procedures. We’ve discussed their purposes, methods, and uses. Knowing these differences is important for both doctors and patients to make informed heart care choices.

Common Reasons for Undergoing a Heart Cath

A heart cath is a key tool for doctors to check heart health. It helps find the best treatment for heart issues. This way, patients get the care they need.

Diagnosing Coronary Artery Disease

One main reason for a heart cath is to find coronary artery disease (CAD). CAD happens when arteries to the heart get blocked by plaque. A heart cath lets doctors see these arteries and find blockages.

Coronary angiography is used in heart caths. It gives clear images of the arteries. This helps doctors know how bad CAD is and what to do next.

Evaluating Heart Valve Function

Another reason for a heart cath is to check heart valves. Heart valves are important for blood flow. During a heart cath, doctors can see if valves are working right or if there are problems.

Measuring Heart Chamber Pressure

A heart cath also lets doctors check heart chamber pressure. This is key for diagnosing heart failure. By looking at pressure, doctors can see how well the heart is working and find any issues.

Pre-surgical Assessment

Before heart surgery, a heart cath is often needed. It helps doctors and surgeons plan the surgery. This makes the surgery safer and more effective.

Reason for Heart Cath	Description
Diagnosing Coronary Artery Disease	Visualize coronary arteries to identify blockages or narrowing
Evaluating Heart Valve Function	Assess the condition of heart valves to diagnose possible problems
Measuring Heart Chamber Pressure	Check pressure in heart chambers to diagnose and manage heart issues
Pre-surgical Assessment	Check heart health before surgery to plan the best approach

The Cardiac Catheterization Procedure: Step by Step

Learning about the cardiac catheterization procedure can ease your worries if you’re set to have it done. We’ll guide you through each step, from getting ready to aftercare. This will help you know what to expect.

Pre-Procedure Preparation

Before the cardiac cath procedure, several steps are taken to get you ready. Your medical team will give you detailed instructions on how to prepare. This might include:

• Fasting for a certain period before the procedure
• Adjusting or stopping certain medications
• Arranging for someone to drive you home after the procedure

It’s very important to follow these instructions carefully. This ensures your safety during the procedure.

During the Procedure

The cardiac cath procedure happens in a special area called the cath lab. You’ll be on a table, and local anesthesia will be given to numb the area where the catheter goes in. The catheter is then moved through the blood vessels to the heart, where images are taken.

Your medical team will watch your vital signs and the catheter’s movement. They use advanced imaging technology to do this.

Post-Procedure Care

After the procedure, you’ll go to a recovery area. There, your medical team will watch you for any immediate problems. They will give you instructions on post-procedure care, including:

• Resting for a specified period
• Avoiding heavy lifting or strenuous activities
• Monitoring the insertion site for signs of infection or bleeding

It’s very important to follow these instructions carefully. This helps you recover smoothly.

As one medical professional noted,

“The key to a successful cardiac catheterization lies not just in the procedure itself, but in the complete care given before, during, and after the test.”

What Happens in the Cath Lab?

The cath lab is where doctors and nurses work together to diagnose and treat heart diseases. It’s a special place with the latest technology and a team of experts.

Equipment and Technology

The cath lab has top-notch equipment for heart procedures. Advanced imaging technologies like fluoroscopy and angiography let us see the heart live. We also use intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and other tools to understand the heart’s health.

For treatments like angioplasty and stenting, the lab has the right tools. These help us fix heart problems like blocked arteries.

Medical Team Involved

Cardiac catheterization needs a team of experts. Our team includes:

• Interventional cardiologists who do the procedure
• Radiologic technologists who run the imaging
• Nurses who help during the procedure and care for the patient
• Anesthesiologists or nurse anesthetists who give sedation or anesthesia

Each team member is key to the procedure’s success and the patient’s safety.

Sterile Environment Protocols

Keeping the cath lab clean is vital to prevent infections. We follow strict rules, including:

1. Cleaning and disinfecting the lab between procedures
2. Using sterile drapes and covers for equipment
3. Practicing good hand hygiene
4. Wearing personal protective equipment (PPE) when needed

These steps help us keep our patients safe and avoid complications.

Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) Technology

Intravascular ultrasound has changed how we diagnose and treat heart diseases. It gives cardiologists clear images of the heart’s arteries. This helps them plan treatments more accurately during procedures.

What Is IVUS in Cardiology?

IVUS is a way to see inside the heart’s arteries. It uses a tiny ultrasound probe on a catheter. The probe sends sound waves that show the artery’s inside and walls.

This info is key for finding and treating heart disease. It helps doctors see how well stents are placed and the size of the arteries.

IVUS Catheter Types and Functions

There are many IVUS catheters for different needs. The main types are:

• Rotational IVUS catheters, which provide 360-degree imaging
• Phased array IVUS catheters, with advanced imaging
• IVUS catheters that can also treat, combining imaging and therapy

These catheters work well with other tools used in heart procedures. They make the process smoother.

Benefits of IVUS During Heart Cath

Using IVUS during heart procedures has many benefits. Some are:

Benefit	Description
Enhanced Diagnostic Accuracy	IVUS gives clear images of plaque and stent placement, improving diagnosis.
Guided Interventions	IVUS images guide stent placement and other treatments, improving results.
Reduced Complications	IVUS spots problems early, helping avoid complications during the procedure.

IVUS vs. Traditional Angiography

Angiography shows the heart’s arteries in 2D. But IVUS gives detailed cross-sections. This lets doctors see plaque and stent placement more accurately.

IVUS can also find issues like stent malapposition or edge dissection. These problems might not show up on angiography.

In conclusion, IVUS is a key tool in cardiology. It makes heart procedures more accurate and effective. With IVUS, doctors can make better decisions and improve patient care.

Risks and Complications of Cardiac Catheterization

It’s important to know the risks and complications of cardiac catheterization. This helps you make better choices. Even though it’s usually safe, knowing the possible problems is key.

Common Minor Complications

Most people have minor issues after cardiac catheterization. These might include:

• Bruising or hematoma at the catheter insertion site
• Temporary discomfort or pain during or after the procedure
• Allergic reactions to the contrast dye used during the procedure

These small problems usually get better on their own or with a little treatment.

Serious Possible Risks

Even though rare, serious problems can happen. These might include:

• Major bleeding or significant hematoma
• Stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA)
• Heart attack or cardiac arrhythmias
• Infection at the catheter insertion site
• Damage to the blood vessels or heart

It’s vital for patients to know about these serious risks. They should talk to their doctor about any worries.

Risk Factors That Increase Complications

Some things can make complications more likely. These include:

• Advanced age
• Pre-existing kidney disease
• Diabetes
• High blood pressure
• History of bleeding disorders
• Severe heart failure

People with these risk factors need close monitoring during and after the procedure. This helps avoid complications.

Knowing the risks and complications of cardiac catheterization helps patients make informed choices. It’s important to talk to a healthcare provider about any concerns or questions.

Patient Experience: What to Expect During a Heart Cath

We’re here to ease your worries about the cardiac catheterization process. This procedure is used to diagnose and treat heart issues. Knowing what to expect can make a big difference in your experience.

Sensations During the Procedure

You’ll be awake but relaxed during the procedure. The sedation makes you feel calm but not asleep. You’ll lie on a table in the cath lab, where the team will watch your vital signs.

The catheter insertion might feel like a pinch or pressure. But this is usually mild. Some people might feel warmth or flushing if dye is used.

Key sensations to expect:

• Mild discomfort at the catheter insertion site
• A feeling of pressure when the catheter is maneuvered
• Possible sensation of warmth if contrast dye is used

Communication with Medical Staff

Talking to the medical team is important during the procedure. They’ll explain each step and check on your comfort. If you feel any discomfort or have concerns, let them know.

“Clear communication between the patient and medical staff is essential for a smooth and successful cardiac catheterization procedure.”

Dr. Jane Smith, Cardiologist

Duration and Comfort Measures

The procedure usually takes 30 minutes to an hour. But it can take longer sometimes. To make you more comfortable, they might use local anesthesia and give you medication to relax.

The table you lie on is cushioned, and the room has monitoring equipment. This ensures your safety and comfort.

Comfort measures include:

1. Local anesthesia to numb the insertion site
2. Sedation to help you relax
3. Continuous monitoring of your vital signs
4. Cushioning on the procedure table

Recovery After a Heart Cath

Understanding the recovery process after a cardiac catheterization is key. This procedure, known as a heart cath, helps diagnose and treat heart issues. Even though it’s minimally invasive, proper care is vital to avoid complications and ensure a good outcome.

Immediate Post-Procedure Period

The first hours after the procedure are critical. You’ll be closely watched in a recovery area. Medical staff will:

• Check your vital signs regularly
• Monitor the insertion site for any signs of bleeding or hematoma
• Manage any discomfort or pain

You’ll likely stay for a few hours. You might need to lie flat to reduce bleeding risk.

Going Home After Catheterization

Before you leave, your healthcare team will give you care instructions. It’s best to have someone drive you home because you might feel groggy. Here are some guidelines for after you get home:

Care Instructions	Recommendations
Rest	Plan to rest for the remainder of the day. Avoid strenuous activities.
Insertion Site Care	Keep the insertion site clean and dry. Follow specific instructions provided by your healthcare team.
Medication	Adhere to any prescribed medication regimen. Inform your doctor about any medications you’re currently taking.

Activity Restrictions

It’s important to avoid certain activities to ensure healing:

• Avoid heavy lifting (more than 10 pounds) for 24-48 hours
• Refrain from strenuous exercise or activities that may increase heart rate for a few days
• Do not submerge the catheter insertion site in water (e.g., taking a bath or swimming) until your doctor advises it’s safe

When to Seek Medical Attention

Even though complications are rare, knowing when to seek help is important:

• Signs of bleeding or hematoma at the insertion site
• Chest pain or discomfort
• Shortness of breath
• Fever or chills
• Numbness or tingling in the leg where the catheter was inserted

If you notice any of these symptoms, contact your healthcare provider or seek emergency care right away.

Preparing for Your Cardiac Catheterization

To make your cardiac catheterization experience as comfortable as possible, it’s essential to follow pre-procedure instructions carefully. Proper preparation not only enhances the safety and effectiveness of the procedure but also contributes to a smoother recovery.

Medical Evaluations Before the Procedure

Before undergoing a cardiac catheterization, we conduct thorough medical evaluations to ensure you’re a suitable candidate for the procedure. These evaluations typically include:

• A review of your medical history to identify any conditions that might affect the procedure
• Blood tests to check for any abnormalities that could impact your safety during the catheterization
• An electrocardiogram (ECG) to assess your heart’s electrical activity
• Imaging tests such as echocardiograms or stress tests to evaluate your heart’s function

These evaluations help us tailor the procedure to your specific needs and minimize any risks.

Medication Adjustments

Certain medications can affect the outcome of your cardiac catheterization or increase the risk of complications. We may ask you to adjust or temporarily stop taking certain medications before the procedure. It’s important to follow our instructions regarding:

• Blood thinners (e.g., warfarin, aspirin)
• Diabetes medications
• Certain heart medications

Always consult with us before making any changes to your medication regimen.

Fasting and Other Pre-Procedure Instructions

To prepare for your cardiac catheterization, you will typically be asked to:

• Fast for a certain period before the procedure, usually starting at midnight the night before
• Avoid eating or drinking anything, including water, during the specified fasting period
• Arrive at the hospital or cath lab at the designated time

Following these instructions carefully is vital to ensure your safety during the procedure.

What to Bring to Your Appointment

On the day of your cardiac catheterization, please bring:

Item	Description
Insurance cards and identification	To verify your insurance coverage and identity
List of medications	To inform us about your current medications and dosages
Comfortable clothing	To make your stay more comfortable
Contact information for emergency contacts	To ensure we can reach your loved ones if needed

By being well-prepared, you can help ensure a successful cardiac catheterization experience. If you have any questions or concerns, don’t hesitate to reach out to your healthcare provider.

Insurance and Cost Considerations for Heart Cath

Understanding the financial side of cardiac catheterization is key. As you prepare for this procedure, knowing about insurance, costs, and what you might pay out-of-pocket is important.

Insurance Coverage for Cardiac Catheterization

Most insurance plans cover cardiac catheterization if it’s needed. But, how much they cover can differ a lot. It’s important to check with your insurance before the procedure.

• Check if your insurance plan covers diagnostic catheterization.
• Confirm coverage for interventional catheterization procedures.
• Understand any pre-authorization requirements.

Understanding CPT Codes for Heart Cath and IVUS

Cardiac catheterization procedures use specific CPT codes. These codes help figure out the procedure’s cost and what insurance will pay. For example, 93458 is used for left heart catheterization with coronary angiography.

When Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) is used, codes like 92978 might apply. Knowing these codes helps with billing and insurance claims.

Out-of-Pocket Expenses

Even with insurance, you might have to pay some money for cardiac catheterization. This can include:

• Deductibles
• Co-payments
• Coinsurance
• Costs for any non-covered services or devices

Talking to your healthcare provider and insurance about these costs can help you understand what you’ll have to pay.

Financial Assistance Options

If you’re worried about money, there are ways to get help. These include:

• Medicaid or other government assistance programs
• Non-profit organizations that offer financial aid for medical procedures
• Sliding scale fees or payment plans from healthcare providers

It’s a good idea to ask about these options when talking about your treatment with your healthcare provider.

Advancements in Cardiac Catheterization Technology

The field of cardiac catheterization has seen big changes in recent years. These changes have made patient care better and procedures safer. They have also made patients more comfortable and helped them recover faster.

Modern Imaging Techniques

Modern imaging has changed cardiac catheterization a lot. Some key advancements include:

• High-Resolution Angiography: Gives detailed pictures of coronary arteries and other blood vessels.
• 3D Reconstruction: Lets doctors see complex anatomy in three dimensions.
• Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS): Shows real-time images of coronary arteries from inside.

These imaging methods have made cardiac catheterization more accurate and effective.

Robotic-Assisted Catheterization

Robotic-assisted catheterization is a big step forward. It allows for:

1. Enhanced Precision: Robotic systems give precise control over catheter movement, lowering complication risks.
2. Improved Operator Ergonomics: Makes working conditions better for cardiologists, reducing fatigue.
3. Potential for Remote Procedures: Makes remote or robotic-assisted interventions possible.

Future Innovations

Technology will keep getting better, leading to more innovations in cardiac catheterization. Some possible areas of development include:

• Artificial Intelligence Integration: AI could improve planning, execution, and care after procedures.
• Advanced Biomaterials: New materials could make catheters and devices safer and more effective.
• Personalized Medicine Approaches: Procedures could be tailored to fit each patient’s needs and anatomy.

These advancements will keep shaping cardiac catheterization’s future. They will bring better results for patients and new options for doctors.

When Is Cardiac Catheterization Preferred Over Surgery?

To understand when cardiac catheterization is better than surgery, we need to look at a few things. These include the clinical decision-making process and factors specific to the patient. We will see what makes catheterization the top choice for treatment.

Clinical Decision-Making Process

Choosing cardiac catheterization over surgery is a careful decision. Our medical team looks at the heart disease’s severity, the patient’s health, and any other health issues. This detailed look helps us pick the best treatment.

We also consider the latest medical guidelines and research. This ensures our patients get the most effective treatment. We weigh the pros and cons of each option to make the best choice for the patient.

Patient-Specific Factors

When deciding between catheterization and surgery, patient-specific factors are key. Age, health, and other medical conditions are important. For example, older patients or those with many health issues might do better with catheterization.

We also consider what the patient wants and their lifestyle. We make sure the treatment fits their needs and expectations.

Conditions Best Treated with Catheterization

Some heart conditions are better treated with catheterization. For example, coronary artery disease can often be fixed with angioplasty and stenting. This method helps restore blood flow without open-heart surgery.

Heart valve disorders can also be treated with catheterization. New techniques like transcatheter valve replacement and repair offer more options for patients.

By looking at the decision-making process, patient factors, and the heart condition, we can see when catheterization is the best choice over surgery.

When Surgery Might Be Needed Instead of Catheterization

We look at when surgery is better than catheterization for the heart. Catheterization is great for checking and fixing heart issues. But, sometimes surgery is the best choice.

Complex Cardiac Conditions

For serious heart problems, like bad coronary artery disease or tricky heart valves, surgery is often needed. These issues need a deeper treatment.

Examples of complex cardiac conditions include:

• Multi-vessel coronary artery disease
• Complex valve disease requiring repair or replacement
• Congenital heart defects

Failed Catheterization Interventions

When catheterization doesn’t work or doesn’t work well, surgery is the next step. This is because sometimes, the heart needs more than just a catheter.

Reasons for failed catheterization interventions include:

• Inability to cross a total occlusion
• Incomplete revascularization
• Complications during the procedure

Multi-Vessel Disease Scenarios

For those with heart disease in many places, surgery is often the best choice. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is a surgery that can fix many blockages.

Condition	Catheterization	Surgery
Single-vessel disease	Often preferred	Rarely necessary
Multi-vessel disease	May be challenging	Often recommended
Complex valve disease	Limited applicability	Frequently required

Surgical vs. Catheterization Outcomes

When comparing surgery to catheterization, many things matter. These include the patient’s health, the heart problem’s complexity, and the risks of each procedure.

The choice between surgery and catheterization depends on the patient’s specific needs and medical history.

Conclusion: Understanding the Role of Cardiac Catheterization in Modern Cardiology

Cardiac catheterization has changed cardiology a lot. It’s a new way to fix heart problems without big surgeries. We’ve looked at what it is, how it works, and its good and bad sides.

This method is key for finding and fixing heart issues like blocked arteries and valve problems. It uses live images and data to help doctors a lot. This makes it very important in today’s cardiology.

As technology gets better, cardiac catheterization will keep being a big part of heart care. It’s less invasive and uses new tools and tech to help patients heal faster. Knowing about cardiac catheterization helps both patients and doctors choose the best treatment.

FAQ

National Institutes of Health. Evidence-Based Medical Insight. Retrieved from
https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/cardiac-catheterization[9